Essays - Michel de Montaigne

Summary

Michel de Montaigne's Essais (Essays) is not a work with a conventional plot or narrative structure. Instead, it is a vast collection of essays, organized into three books, that represent Montaigne's lifelong intellectual and personal exploration. Written during a period of profound political and religious upheaval in France (the French Wars of Religion), the Essais are a radical departure from traditional scholarly writing.

The central "plot" or theme is Montaigne's attempt to understand himself and, through that self-understanding, to comprehend the broader human condition. He famously declared, "I am myself the matter of my book." He delves into an astonishing range of topics—from friendship, education, war, death, and virtue, to the mundane details of his daily life, his health, and his travels. He intertwines personal anecdotes, observations from his life, and extensive quotations from classical Greek and Roman authors (Plutarch, Seneca, Cicero, Lucretius, etc.).

Montaigne's method is one of sustained, often circuitous, introspection and skeptical inquiry. He questions societal customs, philosophical dogmas, and received wisdom, emphasizing the variability and inconsistency of human nature. He champions doubt, relativism, and the value of individual experience, seeking moderation and self-knowledge above all. The Essais capture the development of his thought over two decades, evolving from a more Stoic stance to a more Epicurean acceptance of life's pleasures and uncertainties, culminating in a profound appreciation for "living well" and embracing the natural state of humanity. It is a self-portrait, not just of Montaigne, but of a thinking man grappling with the complexities of existence.

Book Sections

Section: "By Diverse Means We Arrive at the Same End" (Book I, Chapter 1)

This opening essay immediately showcases Montaigne's characteristic approach: starting with a specific historical observation and then drawing broader conclusions about human nature. He begins by recounting historical examples of military leaders and rulers who, when faced with a conquered foe or a supplicant, chose either extreme clemency or extreme severity, yet both approaches achieved the same desired outcome—submission or loyalty.

Montaigne presents instances where those who expected harsh punishment were met with mercy, leading to their grateful and loyal submission. Conversely, he cites examples where leaders were expected to be merciful but chose cruelty, also resulting in submission, albeit born of fear. He reflects on how unpredictability can be a powerful tool and how human reactions are complex and not always rationally predictable. The core argument is that human behavior, and particularly reactions to extreme circumstances, are deeply complex, and often, opposing methods can yield similar results. This sets a tone of questioning conventional wisdom and appreciating human variability.

Character	Characteristics	Motivations
Michel de Montaigne	A French nobleman, magistrate, and philosopher. He is introspective, curious, widely read in classical literature, skeptical of dogmas, and deeply concerned with understanding human nature, particularly his own. He values personal experience and moderation.	His primary motivation for writing the Essais is self-examination and self-knowledge. He seeks to record his thoughts, opinions, and experiences as a way to understand what it means to be human, to cope with life's uncertainties (especially death and political turmoil), and to find a way to live a good and tranquil life.

Section: "Of Idleness" (Book I, Chapter 8)

In this essay, Montaigne recounts his decision to retire from public life and the magistracy at the age of 38, returning to his family estate. He expected this newfound idleness to bring peace and tranquility, allowing his mind to settle. However, he quickly found that his mind, without the external demands and focus of public duties, became restless and chaotic, producing "chimeras and fantastic monsters."

He likens his mind in idleness to a fertile, uncultivated field that, left to itself, will produce weeds and wild, unproductive growth. This restless mental state leads him to seek a new occupation: writing. He decides to "give it some regular employment," which becomes the genesis of the Essais. He resolves to paint a picture of himself, capturing his thoughts as they arise, even if they are disorderly, because he believes that by observing himself, he can better understand humanity. This essay is crucial as it explains the origin and purpose of his unconventional literary project.

Section: "That to Philosophize is to Learn How to Die" (Book I, Chapter 20)

This is one of Montaigne's most famous and profound essays. Drawing heavily on Stoic philosophy, he argues that the purpose of philosophy is to prepare one for death. He posits that since death is an inevitable part of life, fearing it only diminishes the quality of our existence. By contemplating death, familiarizing ourselves with it, and accepting its certainty, we can free ourselves from its terror and thus live more fully.

Montaigne advises readers to "meditate on death" daily, to strip it of its unfamiliarity and dread. He uses numerous examples from classical antiquity—Socrates, Cato the Younger, and others—who faced death with courage and equanimity. He argues that even though it seems paradoxical, by constantly acknowledging death, we become less susceptible to its fear, enabling us to face life's challenges with greater resolve and to appreciate the present moment. He advocates for a mental discipline that places death not as an end, but as a natural culmination, which, once accepted, allows for genuine freedom and tranquility in life.

Section: "Of Coaches" (Book III, Chapter 6)

This essay is a prime example of Montaigne's mature, sprawling, and associative style. He starts by discussing the impracticality and occasional dangers of coaches, recounting various mishaps involving them. From this seemingly trivial starting point, his mind wanders to the extravagance of Roman emperors and their elaborate vehicles, then to the nature of royal ceremonies and displays of power.

Suddenly, he shifts dramatically to the topic of the European conquest of the New World, comparing the vast and advanced civilizations encountered there (like the Incas and Aztecs) with the "primitive" Europeans who conquered them. He expresses profound admiration for the intellectual achievements, moral fortitude, and natural simplicity of the indigenous peoples, while condemning the greed, cruelty, and deceit of the Spanish conquistadors. He laments the destruction of these civilizations and criticizes Europe's self-proclaimed superiority, suggesting that true greatness lay with the conquered. This essay showcases his skepticism towards European ethnocentrism, his admiration for natural virtue, and his characteristic ability to link disparate subjects through reflection and moral commentary, questioning conventional notions of "progress" and "barbarity."

Section: "Of Experience" (Book III, Chapter 13)

Often considered the crowning achievement of the Essais, this final essay encapsulates Montaigne's mature philosophy. He argues against the futility of trying to establish universal laws or abstract systems to govern human behavior or to understand the world. He asserts that human judgment is inherently fallible and variable, and that reliance on complex laws, commentaries, and interpretations only obscures natural reason and complicates life unnecessarily.

Montaigne champions direct experience and individual judgment. He believes that true wisdom comes from observing oneself and the world around with an open mind, rather than conforming to established doctrines. He details his own routines, his diet, his health, his sleep, and his physical sensations, presenting his own body and mind as the ultimate subject of study. He emphasizes living in harmony with one's own nature, accepting its limitations and embracing its simple pleasures. He argues for living "bien et naturellement" (well and naturally), finding contentment in the present moment, and relying on one's own lived experience as the most reliable guide. This essay is a testament to his radical empiricism, his commitment to self-knowledge, and his ultimate embrace of life's fundamental uncertainties.

Literary Genre

The Essais are considered the foundational work of the essay genre itself. Montaigne coined the term "essai" (from the French essayer, "to try" or "to attempt") to describe his informal, exploratory, and often digressive prose pieces. It is also categorized as philosophy, autobiography (though unconventional), and moral philosophy.

Author Facts

• Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) was born into a wealthy merchant family in southwestern France. His father was a former mayor of Bordeaux.
• He received an unusual education, with his father arranging for him to be raised speaking only Latin for his first six years, as well as being woken by music daily.
• He served as a counselor in the Parlement of Bordeaux for several years, forming a deep friendship with fellow magistrate Étienne de La Boétie, whose early death profoundly affected Montaigne.
• At the age of 38, he retired from public life to his family estate, where he began writing his Essais in the tower library.
• Despite his retirement, he reluctantly served two terms as Mayor of Bordeaux during the French Wars of Religion, navigating complex political and religious divisions.
• He remained a Catholic throughout his life but cultivated a remarkable intellectual detachment and tolerance towards religious differences during an exceptionally turbulent period.

Moral of the Book

The overarching "moral" or central lesson of Montaigne's Essais is Know Thyself (γνῶθι σεαυτόν). Montaigne argues that by deeply examining one's own thoughts, prejudices, habits, and limitations, one can better understand humanity in general. He advocates for:

• Skepticism and Doubt: Questioning received wisdom, dogma, and absolute certainties.
• Embracing Variability: Acknowledging the inconsistency and changeability of human nature and opinions.
• Living Naturally: Finding contentment in one's own being and simple pleasures, rather than striving for artificial or prescribed ideals.
• Moderation: Avoiding extremes in all things.
• Preparation for Death: By confronting and accepting mortality, one can live more freely and fully.
• Tolerance: Understanding and accepting the diverse ways of life and opinions, especially during times of conflict.

Ultimately, the Essais encourage intellectual honesty, humility, and the courageous acceptance of the human condition in all its complexity and ambiguity.

Curiosities

• The Tower Library: Montaigne wrote most of his Essais in a circular library on the third floor of his castle's tower. This room provided him with solitude and a panoramic view of his estate, and its walls were inscribed with classical Greek and Latin maxims that influenced his thought.
• The Birth of a Genre: Montaigne literally invented the literary genre of the "essay." Before him, there was no form specifically dedicated to a free, personal, and exploratory reflection on a given subject.
• Evolution of Thought: The Essais were published in three stages: Book I and II in 1580, then an enlarged edition with additions and Book III in 1588, and a final posthumous edition in 1595. Readers can trace the evolution of Montaigne's ideas and writing style from a more formal, Stoic tone to a more personal, skeptical, and relaxed voice.
• Annotated Copy: Montaigne continued to annotate his personal copy of the Essais with additions and corrections until his death. This copy, known as the "Bordeaux Copy," is an invaluable resource for scholars.
• Influence: Montaigne's work profoundly influenced Western literature and philosophy, impacting thinkers and writers like Descartes, Shakespeare, Pascal, Rousseau, Emerson, and Virginia Woolf. He is often seen as a precursor to modern psychology for his deep introspection.