An Essay upon Projects - Daniel Defoe

Summary

'An Essay Upon Projects' by Daniel Defoe is a treatise advocating for various social, economic, and political improvements in late 17th-century England. Written during a period of economic instability and social change, the essay proposes numerous "projects" or schemes designed to benefit the public good, improve commerce, and reform societal institutions. Defoe addresses topics such as the establishment of a universal bank, the creation of insurance schemes (for seamen, fire, and widows), the reform of bankruptcy laws, the provision for the poor, the establishment of academies (including one for women), the improvement of roads, and the importance of a strong navy. Throughout the essay, Defoe emphasizes the power of collective action, sound financial management, and practical ingenuity to solve pressing national problems and advance the prosperity and welfare of the English people. It serves as an early example of modern economic and social thought, blending practical proposals with a moralistic tone.

Book Sections

Section: Introduction and the Spirit of Projecting

Defoe begins his essay by acknowledging the often-negative connotation of "projecting" in his time, associating it with unreliable schemes and speculative ventures. He argues, however, that legitimate projects are essential for the advancement of society, commerce, and human well-being. He distinguishes between genuine, well-considered projects that aim for public benefit and fraudulent schemes driven by greed. Defoe asserts that ingenuity and foresight are valuable assets, and that many improvements throughout history have stemmed from such "projecting." He lays out his intention to propose various practical solutions to contemporary problems, from economic instability to social welfare issues, all with the goal of strengthening England.

Section: Financial Projects – The Universal Bank and Insurance

Defoe proposes the establishment of a Universal Bank as a central institution for managing national finance and facilitating trade. He envisions this bank as a secure repository for money, capable of issuing banknotes as a stable form of currency, thereby reducing the need to transport physical gold and silver and increasing liquidity. He argues that such a bank would stabilize credit, reduce interest rates, and encourage investment, ultimately boosting the national economy.

He then delves into various Insurance Schemes. One prominent proposal is for Insurance for Seamen, recognizing their perilous profession. He suggests a system where seamen contribute a small portion of their wages, creating a fund that would provide financial support to their families in case of death or disablement. This is essentially an early concept of a mutual insurance fund or social security for a specific profession. Defoe also touches upon Fire Insurance, seeing it as a necessary precaution in urban areas, and discusses the potential for Life Insurance or Widows' Annuities, though he is more cautious about these due to the unpredictable nature of human life. His underlying principle is the pooling of risk to mitigate individual misfortune.

Character/Role	Characteristics	Motivations
Projectors (Good)	Ingenious, practical, public-spirited, rational	To improve society, solve problems, create public benefit, advance national prosperity
Projectors (Bad)	Greedy, speculative, deceitful, unrealistic	To enrich themselves rapidly, exploit others, engage in fraud
Seamen	Brave, essential for trade/defense, vulnerable to danger	To earn a living, support families, often face poverty and death
Merchants/Traders	Engaged in commerce, need stable credit, risk-averse	To expand trade, secure investments, protect assets, reduce financial uncertainty
The Public/Society	Diverse, benefits from stability and progress, vulnerable to misfortune	To achieve economic stability, social welfare, security, national strength

Section: Social Welfare and Justice – The Poor and Bankrupts

Defoe dedicates a significant part to the Care of the Poor. He criticizes the existing poor laws as inefficient and proposes a more structured approach. He suggests establishing national Workhouses not just for charity, but for productive labor. He argues that the able-bodied poor should be employed, thereby contributing to the economy and reducing their reliance on alms. For the truly infirm or elderly, he advocates for more humane and organized relief. His perspective is rooted in both economic productivity and a sense of social responsibility, aiming to turn a perceived burden into a productive resource.

He also proposes a radical overhaul of Bankruptcy Laws. In Defoe's time, bankrupts faced severe penalties, including imprisonment and the loss of all property, often leading to destitution for their families. Defoe argues this system is counterproductive. He proposes a more lenient system that distinguishes between honest misfortune and fraudulent activity. For those who genuinely fail in business, he suggests a process where assets are fairly distributed among creditors, and the individual is then released from debt and given a chance to start anew. He believes this would encourage honest dealing, prevent people from hiding assets, and allow individuals to re-enter the economy productively, rather than languishing in prison or becoming a permanent burden.

Section: Educational and Cultural Projects – Academies and Language

Defoe addresses the state of Education in England. He argues for the establishment of Academies that would provide practical and vocational training, moving beyond the traditional classical education offered by universities. He believes these academies should focus on subjects relevant to commerce, industry, and governance, preparing individuals for useful roles in society.

A particularly famous proposal is for an Academy for Women. Defoe, ahead of his time, argues for the intellectual equality of women and the benefit of their education for both themselves and society. He laments the lack of educational opportunities for women, confining them to domestic roles, and suggests an academy where they could learn languages, arts, sciences, and governance. His motivation is not just about individual fulfillment for women, but also about the overall improvement of society, believing that educated women would be better wives, mothers, and contributors to the nation's cultural and moral fabric.

He also touches upon the need for a standardized English Language, advocating for an academy to refine and preserve the language, similar to institutions in France and Italy.

Section: Infrastructure and Public Services – Roads and Postal System

Defoe emphasizes the importance of good Roads for national commerce and communication. He proposes a system for funding and maintaining these roads, possibly through tolls or a national lottery, recognizing that efficient transportation is vital for trade, military movement, and social cohesion. He sees well-maintained roads as an investment that would yield significant economic returns.

He also advocates for improvements to the Postal System. Defoe highlights the need for a faster, more reliable, and more widespread postal service. He suggests reforms that would ensure timely delivery across the nation, viewing the postal service as a critical artery for commerce and government communication. His proposals aim to make it a more efficient and profitable public utility.

Section: Miscellaneous Projects and the Navy

Defoe includes a section on the importance of the Navy for England's security and commercial interests. He discusses the need for a well-maintained fleet, adequate provisions for seamen (tying back to his insurance proposals), and effective naval administration. He views a strong navy as essential for protecting trade routes and defending the nation's global interests.

He concludes by reiterating his belief in the power of well-conceived "projects" to transform society for the better. He encourages readers to embrace innovation and practical solutions, rather than dismissing all new ideas as mere speculation.

Genre

Social and Economic Essay, Political Treatise, Non-fiction. It can also be considered an early work of social policy and economic theory.

Author Facts

• Daniel Defoe (c. 1660 – 1731) was an English trader, writer, journalist, pamphleteer, and spy.
• He is most famous for his novels, particularly 'Robinson Crusoe' (1719), which is often considered one of the first English novels.
• Defoe was a prolific writer, producing hundreds of books, pamphlets, and articles on various subjects, including politics, crime, religion, and economics.
• He lived through a period of significant political and social upheaval in England (the Glorious Revolution, Queen Anne's reign, the Act of Union).
• He often wrote under pseudonyms and sometimes faced imprisonment for his controversial political writings.

Morale and Curiosities

Morale/Lesson:
The primary lesson of 'An Essay Upon Projects' is the power of human ingenuity and collective action to solve societal problems and advance public welfare. Defoe argues that a nation thrives not just through conquest or inheritance, but through the application of reason, practical schemes, and sound economic principles. He advocates for foresight, mutual support, and rational governance to create a more prosperous, secure, and just society. It emphasizes that what might initially seem like speculative "projects" can, when well-conceived and executed, lead to substantial improvements for all.

Curiosities:

• Ahead of its Time: Many of Defoe's proposals, such as a national bank, insurance schemes, and academies for women, were quite progressive for the late 17th century. Some of these ideas eventually materialized in various forms over the following centuries.
• Personal Experience: Defoe's own life as a merchant and his experiences with bankruptcy and political intrigue heavily influenced his practical and often cynical view of human nature and economic affairs, which he sought to address through his projects.
• Early Feminist Argument: His proposal for an academy for women is a notable early argument for women's intellectual equality and educational opportunities, preceding much of the organized feminist movement.
• Influenced by Crisis: The essay was written shortly after a period known as the Nine Years' War and amidst economic uncertainty, which likely spurred Defoe's desire to propose solutions for national recovery and stability.
• "Projector" as a Dirty Word: Defoe's introduction explicitly addresses the negative perception of "projectors" at the time, indicating a cultural distrust of speculative schemes, especially after the South Sea Bubble a few decades later, which would further taint the term.