A Discourse Upon the Origin and the Foundation of the Inequality Among Mankind - Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Summary

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's 'Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men' is a philosophical treatise arguing that inequality is not natural but rather a product of human society and civilization. Rousseau posits a hypothetical "state of nature" where humans are solitary, self-sufficient, and driven by two primary instincts: self-preservation (amour de soi) and pity (pitié). In this natural state, inequality is minimal and purely physical (differences in strength, age, health), having little social impact.

Rousseau contends that the introduction of private property, agriculture, metallurgy, and the formation of social groups marked a radical departure from this original state. These developments fostered comparison, competition, dependency, and new desires (amour-propre, or vanity and pride). The wealthy, fearing the loss of their possessions, then proposed a "social contract" to the poor, establishing laws and government. This contract, presented as a means to ensure justice and protect all, was in reality a clever trick to legitimize and perpetuate existing inequalities, solidifying the power of the rich and enslaving the poor. Thus, moral and political inequality—based on wealth, status, and power—is not natural but a fabrication of society, leading to despotism and the corruption of human nature.

Book Sections

Preface

Rousseau begins by lamenting the difficulty of understanding "natural man," as humanity has been so thoroughly transformed by society that its original nature is almost impossible to discern. He emphasizes that to truly understand the origin of inequality, one must strip away all the artificial characteristics and institutions imposed by civilization. He suggests that this investigation into human nature is the most useful and least advanced of all studies. He also introduces his methodological approach, stating that he will use hypothetical reasoning to describe a "state of nature" rather than relying on historical fact, as such a state may never have truly existed. This thought experiment aims to illuminate the principles of human nature and the gradual changes that led to present-day society and its inequalities.

Dedication to the Republic of Geneva

Rousseau dedicates his discourse to his native city-state, Geneva, praising it as an almost ideal society that embodies the very principles of liberty and justice he seeks to uphold. He describes Geneva as a place where the legislative and executive powers are balanced, where citizens are virtuous and engaged in public affairs, and where the rule of law is sovereign. He highlights the absence of luxury, the strong sense of community, and the general equality among citizens. This dedication serves as a stark contrast to the corrupt and unequal societies he will proceed to analyze, implicitly suggesting that a return to more natural and equitable principles, as exemplified by Geneva, is desirable.

First Part

Rousseau begins by describing the "natural man" (homme sauvage) in the hypothetical state of nature. He paints a picture of a solitary being, physically robust and healthy, guided primarily by instinct. This natural man has simple needs—food, shelter, sleep—and no inherent desire for dominion over others. His motivations are driven by two main principles:

• Amour de soi (Self-preservation): A natural, healthy love of oneself that prompts an individual to ensure their own survival and well-being.
• Pitié (Pity/Compassion): An innate repugnance to seeing another sentient being suffer. This natural empathy acts as a powerful brake on self-interest, preventing the natural man from harming others unnecessarily.

Rousseau argues that in this state, there is no language, no reason beyond basic sensory perception, no morality, no social bonds, and thus no war or conflict. Inequality is minimal and purely physical (differences in strength, agility, health), having little consequence because there is no property, no status, and no one is dependent on another. The natural man is free and uncorrupted.

However, Rousseau introduces the concept of perfectibility (perfectibilité), a unique human faculty that allows humans to learn, adapt, and improve themselves. While initially a positive trait, perfectibility ultimately leads to man's departure from his natural state and the development of reason, language, and society, which in turn pave the way for inequality and corruption.

Rousseau details how man transitioned from the noble savage to the corrupted member of society. This section is the core of his argument about the progression of inequality.

1. Early Innovations and Comparison: The first steps out of the state of nature were driven by necessity and rudimentary intelligence. Men began to make tools, build shelters, and form temporary families. These developments led to an increase in population and closer proximity, fostering the development of language and, crucially, comparison. With comparison came the concept of public esteem and honor, leading to early forms of vanity and pride (amour-propre), which Rousseau distinguishes from the healthy self-preservation of amour de soi. This marks the beginning of moral inequality, as some individuals start to be valued more than others.

2. The Golden Age (Nascent Society): Rousseau describes a stage that was "the truest youth of the world," a primitive society where people lived in villages, sang, danced, and enjoyed social interaction without excessive competition or private property. This stage, while not the pure state of nature, was a balance between savagery and full-blown civilization, where man was happiest. However, even here, early forms of amour-propre began to emerge, leading to resentment and conflict over perceived slights.

3. The Rise of Private Property: The true turning point, according to Rousseau, was the invention of metallurgy and agriculture. These innovations required more intensive labor, division of labor, and the clear demarcation of land. He famously states: "The first man who, having fenced off a plot of ground, took it into his head to say this is mine and found people simple enough to believe him, was the true founder of civil society."

   • Agriculture led to settled life, permanent possessions, and the concept of "mine" and "yours."
   • Metallurgy provided tools that increased productivity but also required specialized skills, leading to some individuals producing more and accumulating wealth.

4. Creation of Rich and Poor: Once private property was established, a fundamental division emerged: the rich (those who owned land and resources) and the poor (those who owned nothing but their labor). This created a state of dependency, exploitation, and conflict. The rich had an interest in maintaining their property, while the poor sought to acquire what they lacked. This struggle led to a "state of war" not between individuals in the natural state, but between the newly formed groups within society.

5. The Social Contract as a Fraud: To escape this precarious state of war and protect their accumulated wealth, the rich devised a cunning plan. They proposed a "social contract" to the poor, arguing for the establishment of laws and government to ensure justice, peace, and the protection of everyone's property. Rousseau views this as a deception: "All ran headlong to their chains, in the belief that they were securing their liberty." The poor, seeing it as a way to end conflict, agreed.

   • This contract effectively legitimized private property and solidified the existing inequalities, transforming usurpation into a right and perpetual servitude into freedom.
   • It created political inequality, establishing the authority of rulers over the ruled.

6. Development of Government and Despotism: Rousseau outlines the progressive stages of inequality authorized by law:

   • Establishment of Law and Right of Property: Creates the distinction between rich and poor.
   • Institution of Magistracy: Creates the distinction between powerful and weak.
   • Transformation of Legitimate Power into Arbitrary Power (Despotism): Creates the distinction between master and slave.
   • As governments grow stronger and become hereditary or despotic, the cycle of inequality culminates in a state where everyone, except the despot, is equally enslaved and stripped of their rights. This, ironically, brings humanity full circle to a "new state of nature"—a corrupt one where force alone rules, but without the innocence and freedom of the original state.

Rousseau concludes that moral inequality, which gives advantages to some over others, is established and authorized by convention and human law, not by nature. It is absurd that a child should command an old man, or an imbecile lead a wise one, simply because one has more wealth or power conferred by society.

Literary Genre

Political Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, Social Contract Theory, Essay.

Author Facts

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century.
• His political philosophy significantly influenced the French Revolution, the development of socialist theory, and the growth of nationalism.
• He is known for his concept of the "general will" and his belief that man is naturally good but corrupted by society.
• Other major works include Du Contrat social (The Social Contract), Émile, ou De l'éducation (Emile, or On Education), and his autobiographical Confessions.
• Rousseau was a central figure of the Enlightenment, though his ideas often challenged the conventional wisdom of his contemporaries, particularly regarding progress and reason. He valued emotion and nature over pure rationality.
• He spent much of his life wandering and was often in conflict with both the authorities and his fellow intellectuals, including Voltaire and Diderot.

Moral/Message

The primary moral of 'Discourse on Inequality' is that inequality among men is not natural but is a detrimental product of human society and civilization. Rousseau argues that:

• Human nature, in its original state, is inherently good, peaceful, and driven by self-preservation and pity.
• The development of society, particularly the introduction of private property, ambition, and comparison, corrupts this natural goodness.
• The social contract, often presented as a solution for peace and justice, was historically a clever mechanism devised by the wealthy to legitimize and perpetuate their dominance over the poor.
• True freedom is diminished by excessive social dependency, artificial needs, and the pursuit of status.
• A just society should strive to minimize moral and political inequality, aligning more closely with the principles of natural freedom and equality.

Curiosities

• The Dijon Academy Question: Rousseau wrote this discourse in response to an essay contest posed by the Academy of Dijon in 1754, which asked: "What is the origin of inequality among men, and is it authorized by natural law?" He did not win the prize, but his essay became one of his most important and influential works.
• The "Noble Savage" Concept: Although Rousseau himself never used the exact phrase "noble savage," his depiction of natural man as uncorrupted and guided by benign instincts contributed significantly to this enduring romanticized image of pre-civilized humanity.
• Critique of Enlightenment Progress: While a figure of the Enlightenment, Rousseau was often a contrarian. This discourse directly challenges the prevailing Enlightenment belief that civilization and scientific progress inherently improve humanity. Instead, he suggests they lead to moral degradation and inequality.
• Foundation for The Social Contract: This discourse lays the philosophical groundwork for Rousseau's later, more constructive work, The Social Contract (1762). In The Social Contract, he attempts to outline a legitimate political order that might allow individuals to maintain their freedom while living in society, by creating a government based on the "general will" rather than on the protection of established inequalities.
• Influence on Revolution: Rousseau's ideas, particularly his critique of arbitrary power and his emphasis on popular sovereignty, were highly influential on the French Revolutionaries, who saw in his writings a justification for overthrowing the existing aristocratic order.