Discourse on the Method - René Descartes

Summary

"Discourse on Method" is René Descartes' philosophical and autobiographical treatise, in which he recounts his intellectual journey to establish a new foundation for knowledge, free from the uncertainties of traditional scholasticism. Dissatisfied with the learning of his time, Descartes resolved to doubt everything he had been taught and to seek truth only through reason and self-reflection. He proposes a four-part method: to accept nothing as true unless it is clearly evident, to divide complex problems into simpler parts, to proceed from the simple to the complex, and to make complete enumerations. Applying this method, he famously arrives at the foundational truth "I think, therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum), demonstrating the certainty of his own existence as a thinking being. From this, he deduces the existence of a perfect God as the guarantor of clear and distinct ideas, and establishes the radical distinction between mind (thinking, unextended) and body (extended, unthinking). The discourse then extends these principles to physical science and provisional morality, advocating for a life guided by reason and a systematic approach to understanding the world. It serves as a personal narrative of his quest for certain knowledge and an introduction to his revolutionary philosophical system.

Book Sections

Section 1

Descartes begins by stating that good sense or reason is equally distributed among all people, but the proper application of it is what makes the difference. He recounts his dissatisfaction with his education at La Flèche, finding fault with nearly all subjects taught, except for mathematics, whose certainty he admired. He realized that while he had learned many things, he had not acquired any certain knowledge. This realization led him to abandon formal studies and travel, observing the "great book of the world." He resolved to doubt everything he had been taught and to seek truth only within himself. He decided to undertake a complete reconstruction of his knowledge, relying solely on his own reason. He describes his youthful resolve to avoid prejudice and systematically build his understanding.

Characters Involved	Characteristics	Motivations
René Descartes	A thoughtful and introspective individual, highly intelligent and intellectually honest. Dissatisfied with received wisdom and traditional education. Seeks certainty and foundational truth. Highly self-disciplined and methodical.	Driven by a profound desire to find certain and unshakable knowledge. He is motivated by the perceived inadequacy of existing philosophical and scientific systems, which he views as built on shaky foundations. His primary motivation is to reconstruct knowledge from the ground up, relying solely on his own reason and a rigorous method, in order to avoid error and establish truths that can serve as a basis for reliable science and a well-lived life. He is also motivated by a desire for intellectual autonomy and to escape the prejudices and uncertainties of his cultural context.

Section 2

Having cleared his mind of previous opinions, Descartes presents the four main rules of his method. He compares his task to rebuilding a city from scratch, rather than patching up old structures.

1. Rule of Evidence: Never accept anything as true unless it is presented to the mind so clearly and distinctly that there is no room for doubt.
2. Rule of Analysis: Divide each difficulty into as many parts as possible, or as required for its better solution.
3. Rule of Synthesis: Direct thoughts in an orderly manner, starting with the simplest and easiest to understand objects, and gradually ascending to the knowledge of the more complex.
4. Rule of Enumeration: Make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that one is certain to have omitted nothing.
   He explains that these rules, though simple, provide a powerful tool for discovering truth in all fields, much like the methods used in geometry and algebra. He emphasizes that he used this method not just for abstract problems but for all aspects of life.

Section 3

Before fully embarking on his intellectual project, Descartes recognized the need for a provisional morality to guide his actions in the world while his systematic doubt was underway. He outlined three maxims:

1. Obey the Laws and Customs: To obey the laws and customs of his country, adhering to the most moderate and commonly accepted opinions, particularly those of the most sensible people. He resolved to live by the religion in which he had been brought up.
2. Be Firm and Resolute: To be as firm and resolute in his actions as possible, even in matters where his reasoning was uncertain, following a chosen course of action as if it were undoubtedly correct.
3. Conquer Himself, Not Fortune: To always try to conquer himself rather than fortune, changing his desires rather than the order of the world. He believed that nothing is entirely within our power except our thoughts.
   He adds a fourth maxim, which is to devote his entire life to cultivating his reason and advancing in the knowledge of truth according to the method he had prescribed. These maxims allowed him to live practically and morally while he pursued his intellectual reconstruction.

Section 4

This section contains the core of Descartes' metaphysics. He describes applying his method of systematic doubt to everything: his senses, his body, the external world, even mathematical truths. He doubted everything except the very act of doubting itself. This led him to his famous conclusion: "I think, therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum). He realized that the very act of doubting proved his existence as a thinking substance (a mind, or soul), distinct from the body.
He then moved to prove the existence of God. From the idea of a perfect being that he found within himself, he argued that this idea must have originated from a truly perfect being, i.e., God, as an imperfect being could not have conceived of such perfection. He also used a form of the ontological argument, stating that existence is a perfection, and therefore a perfect being must necessarily exist. God, being perfect, is also supremely good and not a deceiver, which guarantees the reliability of clear and distinct ideas perceived by the mind. This allowed him to rebuild knowledge, starting with the certainty of his own existence and then the existence of God, before moving to the external world. He emphasized the distinction between mind (a thinking, unextended substance) and body (an extended, unthinking substance).

Section 5

Descartes now applies his method to the physical world, presenting a brief outline of the universe. He describes a hypothetical world, created by God, and the general laws of nature that would govern it. He discusses the nature of light, the movements of the planets, and the constitution of the elements. He explains the human body as a machine, detailing the circulation of blood and the function of the heart, based on experiments and reasoning. He argues that animals are complex machines, operating purely mechanically, without reason or soul. He distinguishes humans from animals by two main criteria:

1. Language: Humans possess the unique ability to use language to express complex thoughts, which no animal can do.
2. Reason/General Action: Humans can act with universal reason in all circumstances, whereas animal actions, however complex, are always specific responses to particular stimuli and derive from the disposition of their organs.
   He asserts that the rational soul of humans must be distinct from the body and not produced by matter, but rather created directly by God. This section offers a glimpse into his broader scientific work, much of which was contained in his unpublished treatise, "The World."

Section 6

In the final section, Descartes reflects on his reasons for publishing the "Discourse" and his philosophical ideas. He explains that he had previously refrained from publishing his scientific work ('The World') due to the condemnation of Galileo. He believed that his method and discoveries could greatly benefit humanity, particularly in medicine and the practical arts, by making humans "masters and possessors of nature." However, he also recognized the need for more experiments and the collaboration of others to advance knowledge. He urges others to contribute to experimental science, and offers to share his own findings, while also expressing his preference for quiet study over public debate. He emphasizes that his primary goal is to live well and to pursue truth, rather than fame or fortune. He concludes by reiterating his commitment to his method and his desire to improve human life through reason and science.

Literary Genre

Philosophical Treatise; Autobiography.

Author Facts

• René Descartes (1596–1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist.
• He is often called the "Father of Modern Philosophy" due to his revolutionary break from scholastic tradition and his emphasis on reason and doubt.
• He is credited with inventing the Cartesian coordinate system, which forms the foundation of analytic geometry.
• His influential works include "Meditations on First Philosophy" and "Principles of Philosophy."
• He spent much of his adult life in the Dutch Republic, seeking intellectual freedom.
• He died in Stockholm, Sweden, where he had been invited to tutor Queen Christina. His death is often attributed to pneumonia contracted from early morning lessons in the cold Swedish climate.

Moral of the Book

The primary moral of "Discourse on Method" is the paramount importance of systematic doubt and rigorous, independent reason as the only reliable path to certain knowledge and a well-lived life. It teaches that one should not accept traditional beliefs or sensory information without critical examination, but rather build one's understanding from foundational, indubitable truths. The book encourages intellectual autonomy, methodical inquiry, and the pursuit of clear and distinct ideas to overcome ignorance, prejudice, and error, ultimately leading to a more enlightened and ethical existence.

Curiosities

• Written in French: Unlike most philosophical works of its time, which were written in Latin for an academic audience, Descartes wrote "Discourse on Method" in French. This was a deliberate choice to make his ideas accessible to a wider, non-academic public, including women.
• A Preface, Not a Standalone Work: The "Discourse" was originally intended as a preface to three scientific essays on Optics, Meteorology, and Geometry, collectively titled "Essays on this Method." It was meant to explain the philosophical method used in those scientific works.
• The First Appearance of "Cogito, ergo sum": The famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum) makes its first explicit appearance in print in this work, specifically in Part IV.
• Galileo's Influence: Descartes withheld publication of his scientific treatise, "The World," due to Galileo Galilei's condemnation by the Inquisition in 1633. The "Discourse" implicitly refers to this event and Descartes' caution about expressing potentially controversial scientific views.
• The "Evil Demon" Thought Experiment: While more extensively developed in "Meditations on First Philosophy," the seeds of Descartes' methodical doubt, including the possibility of a deceiving entity, are present in the "Discourse."