What is Art? - Leo Tolstoy
Summary Leo Tolstoy's 'What Is Art?' is a profound philosophical essay that challenges the prevailing definitions and practices of art in hi...
Summary
Leo Tolstoy's 'What Is Art?' is a profound philosophical essay that challenges the prevailing definitions and practices of art in his time. Tolstoy argues that art has become corrupted, moving away from its true purpose of transmitting feeling and uniting people, to instead serve the pleasure and vanity of the upper classes. He dismisses theories that define art by beauty, pleasure, or intellectual concepts, asserting that genuine art is characterized by its "infectiousness"—the capacity to evoke in the audience the same feeling the artist experienced. Tolstoy critiques much of what was considered great art, including works by Shakespeare, Beethoven, and even his own early novels, for failing to meet his criteria of universal accessibility, clarity, and sincerity. He advocates for art guided by a religious perception that promotes human brotherhood and universal love, simple and understandable by all, as the path to true artistic expression and human progress.
Book Sections
Section 1
Tolstoy opens his treatise by describing the immense amount of human labor, resources, and suffering dedicated to art, specifically illustrating an opera rehearsal. He highlights the absurd expense, the physical and emotional toll on performers and workers, and the often trivial or incomprehensible nature of the productions. This elaborate, costly, and sometimes cruel machinery of art prompts his fundamental question: what is art, and is it worth such sacrifice? He observes that despite widespread discussions about art, no clear, universally accepted definition exists, leading to confusion and the flourishing of what he considers counterfeit art.
| Key Concepts/Figures Discussed | Characteristics/Description | Motivation/Relevance to Tolstoy |
|---|---|---|
| Contemporary Western Art (late 19th century opera, ballet, poetry) | Expensive, elaborate, demanding of human labor (often exploited), artificial, often based on trivial or obscure subjects, inaccessible to the majority. | Represents the corruption and misdirection of art in his time, serving pleasure and luxury rather than true spiritual communication. It prompts his initial questioning of art's purpose. |
Section 2
Tolstoy systematically reviews and critiques various aesthetic theories from ancient Greece to his contemporary era, focusing particularly on those that define art in terms of "beauty." He examines the ideas of philosophers like Baumgarten, Kant, Hegel, Schiller, and Spencer, pointing out the inherent subjectivity and lack of a solid objective foundation in their definitions. He argues that reducing art to that which evokes "beauty" inevitably leads to defining it by the pleasure it provides, which he believes is a superficial and ultimately misleading criterion. Tolstoy concludes that all definitions of art based on beauty or pleasure are ultimately subjective and arbitrary, serving only to justify the preferences of a select few.
| Key Concepts/Figures Discussed | Characteristics/Description | Motivation/Relevance to Tolstoy |
|---|---|---|
| Aesthetic Theories (e.g., Baumgarten, Kant, Hegel, Schiller, Spencer) | Primarily define art as that which evokes beauty or pleasure; often linked to subjective experience, the ideal, or divine manifestation; rooted in philosophical traditions trying to find universal principles of taste. | Tolstoy critiques these theories for failing to provide an objective, universal definition, and for leading art astray by prioritizing subjective pleasure over moral and spiritual communication, thereby legitimizing corrupt art. |
Section 3
Having dismissed previous definitions, Tolstoy proposes his own: "Art is a human activity consisting in this, that one man consciously, by means of certain external signs, hands on to others feelings he has lived through, and that other people are infected by these feelings and also experience them." The key concept here is "infection." For an artwork to be true art, it must evoke in the audience the same feeling that the artist experienced while creating it, thereby establishing a spiritual union between the artist and the audience, and among the audience members themselves. He argues that this capacity to transmit feeling is the fundamental and objective criterion for identifying art.
| Key Concepts/Figures Discussed | Characteristics/Description | Motivation/Relevance to Tolstoy |
|---|---|---|
| "Infection" / Communication of Feeling | The core of true art; the ability of an artwork to transmit the artist's feeling to the audience, causing them to experience the same emotion and fostering unity. | This is Tolstoy's central thesis, his proposed objective standard for judging art, moving beyond subjective beauty and intellectual concepts. It defines art's true purpose. |
Section 4
Tolstoy distinguishes between genuine art and counterfeit art. He outlines three conditions for genuine art:
- Individuality of the feeling transmitted: The feeling should be unique to the artist, not a mere rehash.
- Clarity of transmission: The feeling must be communicated clearly, so the audience understands it without ambiguity.
- Sincerity of the artist: This is the most crucial condition; the artist must truly experience the feeling they wish to convey.
Counterfeit art, in contrast, lacks sincerity and relies on various artifices: borrowings (imitating existing art), imitations (copying reality superficially), effects (seeking novelty or shock), and intellectualism (creating art from reasoned ideas rather than genuine feeling). Such art, Tolstoy argues, may be skillful but fails to "infect" the audience with genuine emotion.
| Key Concepts/Figures Discussed | Characteristics/Description | Motivation/Relevance to Tolstoy |
|---|---|---|
| Sincerity (of the artist) | The artist truly experiences the feeling they wish to convey and expresses it without pretense or calculation; it's the honesty and truthfulness of the artist's emotional experience. | Crucial for true art; without sincerity, the "infection" cannot occur, and the work becomes mere imitation, intellectual exercise, or a technical display rather than genuine emotional communication. |
Section 5
Tolstoy traces the historical degeneration of art, asserting that it began with the loss of its religious basis after the Renaissance. When art moved from serving a communal religious purpose to becoming a source of pleasure for the leisured upper classes, it lost its universal appeal and clarity. This shift led to art becoming obscure, complex, artificial, and elitist, requiring special training or intellectual effort to appreciate. It became cut off from the common people, prioritizing individual gratification, technical skill, and intellectual amusement over the transmission of universal feelings that unite humanity.
| Key Concepts/Figures Discussed | Characteristics/Description | Motivation/Relevance to Tolstoy |
|---|---|---|
| Renaissance to Modern Art (as influenced by upper classes) | Lost its universal religious purpose, became secular, focused on individual pleasure and aesthetics, intellectualized, obscure, and accessible primarily to the wealthy elite; prioritized technical skill and novelty. | Represents the historical process by which art lost its way, becoming separated from the common people and its true, unifying purpose, leading to artificiality and corruption. |
Section 6
Tolstoy argues that the purpose of art should be guided by the "religious perception of the age"—the highest understanding of life's meaning, which, for his era, was the brotherhood of man. True art, therefore, should transmit feelings that unite people, fostering universal love, compassion, and shared humanity. He divides such art into two main categories:
- Art that transmits feelings flowing from a religious perception (e.g., love of God and neighbor, self-sacrifice).
- Art that transmits simple, universally accessible feelings common to all people (e.g., joy, sorrow, humor, awe), leading to a sense of commonality.
He champions simple, folk art, parables, and works expressing deep human empathy as examples of true, universal art, while condemning much of the celebrated Western art as harmful, "counterfeit," and immoral.
| Key Concepts/Figures Discussed | Characteristics/Description | Motivation/Relevance to Tolstoy |
|---|---|---|
| Religious Perception of the Age | The highest understanding of life attainable at a given time, informing moral and ethical values. For Tolstoy's age, this was the perception of the brotherhood of man and universal love. | Provides the guiding principle for what true art should aim to transmit; art should serve to unite people according to the highest moral ideals of its time, fostering spiritual growth and social cohesion. |
Section 7
Tolstoy envisions a future where art, liberated from its current corruption, will transform significantly. It will cease to be a trivial amusement for the wealthy and become a vital force for human progress. This future art will be simple, accessible, and understandable to all people, transmitting feelings of universal brotherhood and love, guided by a deepened Christian religious consciousness. He believes that such art will replace the current complex, exclusive forms, becoming a powerful means to achieve spiritual unity among people. This art will lead to a better, more moral society, fulfilling art's true destiny as a spiritual unifier rather than a source of individual pleasure or status.
Literary Genre: Philosophical Essay, Aesthetics, Art Criticism, Non-fiction.
Author Facts:
- Leo Tolstoy (Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy) (1828–1910) was a Russian novelist, short story writer, playwright, and essayist.
- He is widely regarded as one of the greatest writers of all time, most famous for the epic novels 'War and Peace' (1869) and 'Anna Karenina' (1877).
- In his later life, Tolstoy underwent a profound spiritual crisis, leading him to develop a radical Christian anarchist philosophy focused on non-violence, simplicity, and moral purity, which significantly influenced figures like Mahatma Gandhi.
- He was excommunicated from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901 due to his outspoken criticism of the church and state.
- 'What Is Art?' was published in 1898, representing the culmination of fifteen years of reflection and critical re-evaluation of art and its purpose in society.
Moral of the Book:
The central moral of 'What Is Art?' is that the true purpose of art is to unite humanity by transmitting universal feelings, especially those of love, compassion, and brotherhood, in a way that is accessible and understandable to all. Art should serve as a means of spiritual communication and moral upliftment, contributing to the well-being and unity of all people, rather than being an exclusive source of pleasure, entertainment, or intellectual amusement for a select few.
Curiosities of the Book:
- Radical Condemnations: Tolstoy famously condemns many revered works and artists of Western culture. He labels much of Shakespeare's work, including 'King Lear', as bad or even immoral art. He also critiques Michelangelo, Raphael, Bach, Beethoven (especially his later works like the Ninth Symphony), and even parts of his own earlier celebrated novels like 'War and Peace'.
- Praise for Simple Art: Conversely, he praises simple folk tales, peasant songs, and certain works for their genuine infectiousness and universal appeal, such as Victor Hugo's 'Les Misérables', parts of Dostoevsky's writings, and Millet's painting 'The Angelus'.
- Personal Cost: Tolstoy invested fifteen years into writing this essay, often struggling with its complex subject matter and the implications of his own conclusions, which forced him to re-evaluate his entire literary output and lifestyle.
- Controversy: Upon its publication, 'What Is Art?' caused immense controversy and shock among artists, critics, and the educated elite, many of whom found his views extreme and insulting to the canon of Western art.
- Autobiographical Element: The book is deeply intertwined with Tolstoy's personal spiritual crisis and his later ascetic and moralistic philosophy, reflecting his search for meaning and purpose beyond mere aesthetic pleasure or worldly success.
