Sardanapalus - Lord Byron

Summary

Sardanapalus, the last king of Assyria, is depicted as a pleasure-seeking monarch, more interested in luxury, feasts, and his Ionian slave Myrrha than in the responsibilities of ruling. His brother-in-law, Salemenes, a loyal general, warns him of impending rebellion by discontented satraps, Arbaces and Beleses, who view Sardanapalus's effeminacy and indolence as weakness. Initially reluctant to engage in war, Sardanapalus is forced to take up arms when the conspiracy escalates into open revolt. Guided by Myrrha's unwavering courage and Salemenes's military expertise, Sardanapalus surprisingly demonstrates bravery and martial skill, repelling the rebels in several initial engagements. However, a series of misfortunes, including a decisive defeat and the death of Salemenes, eventually corner him in his palace in Nineveh. Facing certain defeat and refusing to be captured, Sardanapalus orders the construction of a magnificent funeral pyre within his palace. Accompanied by Myrrha, who remains fiercely loyal and loving, he sets fire to the pyre, choosing a fiery death amidst his treasures rather than surrender or dishonor.

Book Sections

Section 1

The play opens in the royal palace in Nineveh, where Sardanapalus, the King of Assyria, is shown indulging in a life of luxury, feasting, and entertainment, surrounded by his concubines and courtiers. He expresses his philosophy of seeking pleasure and avoiding the burdens of kingship. His favorite concubine, Myrrha, an Ionian slave, is deeply devoted to him but also subtly tries to inspire him to embrace his duties and face the dangers threatening his realm.

Sardanapalus's brother-in-law, Salemenes, a seasoned general and a man of stern principles, enters and vehemently warns the King about the growing discontent among his satraps, particularly Arbaces (the Mede) and Beleses (the Chaldean), who are plotting rebellion. Salemenes urges Sardanapalus to adopt a more assertive and warlike stance, but the King dismisses his warnings, preferring peace and pleasure over conflict.

Meanwhile, Arbaces and Beleses are shown secretly conspiring. They discuss Sardanapalus's perceived weakness and effeminacy, seeing it as an opportune moment to seize power. They rally their respective forces and prepare to march against the capital.

Character	Characteristics	Motivations
Sardanapalus	King of Assyria, hedonistic, effeminate in appearance but with underlying courage, poetic, apathetic to governing.	Seeks pleasure and comfort, wishes to avoid conflict, values peace, desires love and companionship (especially Myrrha).
Myrrha	Ionian slave, Sardanapalus's favorite, courageous, intelligent, deeply loyal and loving, proud, from a warrior culture.	Loves Sardanapalus, desires his safety and honor, tries to inspire him to be a better ruler and defender of his realm.
Salemenes	Sardanapalus's brother-in-law and general, stern, loyal, dutiful, warlike, critical of the King's effeminacy.	Loyal to Assyria and the royal line, seeks to protect the kingdom from rebellion and ensure the King fulfills his duty.
Arbaces	Satrap of Media, ambitious, proud, believes Sardanapalus is unfit to rule, a military leader.	Seeks power and glory, believes he is more capable of ruling than Sardanapalus, desires to establish his own dynasty.
Beleses	Satrap of Chaldea, ambitious, cunning, a priest/soothsayer, conspires with Arbaces.	Seeks power and influence, uses his religious authority to manipulate and gain support, desires to overthrow the king.

Section 2

The rebellion breaks out. Salemenes, despite his frustrations with the King's complacency, remains fiercely loyal and attempts to defend the palace. Sardanapalus, initially dismissive, is forced to confront the reality of the threat. He struggles with his aversion to bloodshed and the harsh realities of war.

Myrrha, witnessing the danger, passionately encourages Sardanapalus to fight. She reminds him of his royal lineage and inspires him with her own courage and devotion. Her resolve and willingness to face death alongside him awaken a dormant martial spirit within the King.

Driven by Myrrha's words and the immediate threat to his life and kingdom, Sardanapalus sheds his robes of luxury and dons armor. He prepares to lead his loyal forces into battle, surprising even Salemenes with his sudden transformation and determination. He gives orders for the defense of the city and prepares for a direct confrontation with the rebel forces.

Section 3

Sardanapalus, much to the astonishment of his enemies and even his own allies, proves to be a surprisingly capable and courageous leader in battle. Guided by Salemenes's strategic advice and motivated by Myrrha's presence and encouragement, he personally leads his troops and achieves a significant victory against the rebel forces. Arbaces and Beleses are momentarily thrown into disarray by the King's unexpected martial prowess.

Following the victory, Sardanapalus's estranged queen, Zarina, arrives at the palace. She confronts him, expressing her pain at his neglect and his public preference for Myrrha. She pleads with him to reconcile and return to his duties as her husband and king. Sardanapalus, though respectful, reaffirms his deep love for Myrrha, stating that she alone understands and supports him. Zarina departs, heartbroken but with a degree of understanding for Myrrha's position.

Character	Characteristics	Motivations
Zarina	Sardanapalus's estranged queen, proud, heartbroken, still deeply loves the King despite his neglect, dignified.	Seeks reconciliation with Sardanapalus, desires to reclaim her position as queen, hopes to restore the stability of the royal family.

Section 4

The tide of the war begins to turn against Sardanapalus. After a series of initial successes, a sudden, violent storm (which Beleses interprets as divine disapproval of Sardanapalus) disrupts the royal forces, causing disarray and allowing the rebels to regroup and launch a devastating counterattack. Sardanapalus's forces suffer heavy losses.

In the ensuing battles, Salemenes, fighting bravely for his king, is killed. His death is a severe blow to Sardanapalus, who loses his most capable military advisor and a loyal kinsman. Defeated and with his army decimated, Sardanapalus is forced to retreat into the walled city of Nineveh. The rebels, led by Arbaces and Beleses, besiege the capital. The mood within the palace shifts from triumph to despair as the King faces the inevitable downfall of his empire.

Section 5

With Nineveh under siege and the situation hopeless, Sardanapalus refuses to surrender or fall into his enemies' hands. He remembers an ancient prophecy that states Nineveh could only be taken if the river overflowed its banks. When the river Tigris indeed floods and damages the city walls, he realizes his fate is sealed.

Sardanapalus decides upon a grand, defiant act. He orders his loyal attendants to construct a massive funeral pyre within the palace, composed of all his treasures, precious artifacts, and fragrant woods. He then prepares for his final moments, reminiscing about his life of pleasure and expressing his disdain for the ambitious and warlike nature of his enemies. Myrrha, unwavering in her devotion, insists on joining him. Despite his pleas for her to escape, she declares her love and loyalty, choosing to die with him.

Together, Sardanapalus and Myrrha ascend the pyre. As the rebels break through the city gates, Sardanapalus lights the pyre himself. The palace goes up in flames, consuming the king, his beloved Myrrha, and all his worldly possessions in a dramatic act of self-immolation, denying his enemies the satisfaction of his capture.

Literary Genre

• Dramatic Poem / Closet Drama: "Sardanapalus" is structured as a five-act play, intended more for reading than for stage performance (hence "closet drama"). It is written in blank verse, common for tragedies of the era.
• Historical Tragedy: The play is based on the historical figure of Sardanapalus, though Byron takes significant liberties with the historical narrative for dramatic effect. It follows the conventions of tragedy, depicting the downfall of a noble figure.

Author Details

Lord Byron (George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron) (1788–1824):
One of the leading figures of the Romantic movement, Byron was a celebrated and controversial English poet and satirist. Known for his "Byronic hero"—an idealized but flawed character, often moody, passionate, and rebellious—he captured the imagination of Europe. His most famous works include "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage," "Don Juan," and numerous lyrical poems. Byron lived a life of extravagance, scandal, and political activism. He died in Greece while fighting for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire, solidifying his image as a Romantic revolutionary.

Moral of the Story

The moral of "Sardanapalus" is complex and open to interpretation, but several themes stand out:

• The Nature of Leadership and Power: The play questions whether a ruler focused on peace and pleasure can withstand the ambitions of those who value power and war. It explores the tension between a sovereign's personal desires and the demands of governance.
• Redemption and Inner Strength: Sardanapalus, initially portrayed as effeminate and weak, finds unexpected courage and dignity in the face of death, suggesting that true strength can emerge in extreme circumstances.
• The Futility of Ambition vs. The Value of Love: While the ambitious rebels succeed in overthrowing the king, Byron seems to suggest a certain nobility in Sardanapalus's final act, prioritizing love and self-determination over ignominious defeat, contrasting it with the endless cycle of power struggles.
• The Price of Indolence: While Byron imbues Sardanapalus with sympathetic qualities, the play also serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of a ruler neglecting their duties and allowing discontent to fester.

Curiosities

• Historical Inaccuracies: Byron took significant liberties with the historical Sardanapalus. The actual historical figure (Ashurbanipal or Assur-bani-pal) was a powerful and cruel warrior king, not the hedonistic and somewhat effeminate ruler depicted by Byron. Byron based his character more on Greek legends about Sardanapalus, which painted him as a decadent figure.
• Autobiographical Elements: Many critics see elements of Byron himself in Sardanapalus – the misunderstood genius, the rebellious spirit, the love of pleasure, and the defiance in the face of a hostile world. Myrrha is also seen as embodying Byron's ideal of a strong, devoted woman.
• Influence on Art: The play inspired Eugène Delacroix's famous painting, "The Death of Sardanapalus" (1827), a dramatic and violent depiction of the king's final moments, though Delacroix's vision is even more extravagant and chaotic than Byron's text.
• Closet Drama: Like many of Byron's plays, "Sardanapalus" was written primarily for reading rather than performance. Its lengthy soliloquies and intricate character development were better suited to a reader's contemplation than a stage production of the early 19th century.
• Romantic Idealism: The play exemplifies Romantic ideals: the focus on individual heroism, intense emotion, the glorification of a defiant death, and the exploration of exotic historical settings.